_{Photo by Kristijan Arsov on Unsplash}

By Sophie Litvak, PhD
University of Helsinki

Religiously motivated hate crimes remain a persistent concern across Europe and beyond.
These incidents often unfold in public spaces such as buses, streets, or parks, with bystanders present. Yet many witnesses stay silent, avert their gaze, or pretend not to notice. Why do some people intervene while others walk away?
At the 2025 NSfK Seminar in Fyn, Denmark, I presented ongoing research that explores this
question. Drawing on a large-scale factorial survey experiment conducted during my doctoral studies in four countries, Finland, Germany, Israel, and the United States, my project investigates how young people respond when they witness religious hate in public spaces.
The aim is to uncover the social and psychological dynamics behind bystander behaviour in
hate crime scenarios and to understand how factors such as victim identity, perceived
vulnerability, and cultural context shape intervention decisions.

Experimental Insights on Bystander Behaviour
In the study, over 2,000 participants aged 18 to 29 were randomly presented with short
vignettes describing a verbal hate incident in a public setting, with the participant imagined as the witness. The scenarios varied the victim’s religion (Muslim, Jewish, or non-religious) and gender.
Respondents were then asked how likely they would be to respond in different ways: filming
the incident, live streaming it, confronting the offender verbally or physically, calling for help, or contacting the police.
Preliminary findings suggest that indirect actions, especially contacting authorities, are more common than direct confrontation. Participants were more likely to intervene when the victim appeared especially vulnerable, particularly in the case of women. Support was least likely for Muslim male victims, suggesting that bias and perceived threat may influence helping behaviour. Contrary to theories of in-group favouritism, respondents were not consistently more likely to assist victims who shared their religion. Instead, responses appear to be shaped by broader
social norms, political narratives, and individual perceptions of risk.

Why This Work Matters
In today’s polarised climate, religious identity is frequently politicised, misunderstood, or
conflated with ethnicity and nationality. Religious minorities often bear the burden of collective blame, making them particularly vulnerable in public spaces.
Bystander behaviour is not merely a personal response. It sends a public signal about what is tolerated and what is condemned. These everyday choices reflect broader moral boundaries within a society.
Although the data analysis is still ongoing, early findings suggest that public solidarity is
unevenly distributed. Understanding what shapes bystander responses can support more
effective education, prevention, and policy initiatives across both Nordic and wider European contexts. By comparing intervention patterns across four culturally and legally distinct countries, this
research underscores the importance of national context in shaping both the experience of hate and the likelihood of response.

Looking Ahead
The full findings will be published in an upcoming academic article. However, even at this
stage, the results offer timely insights for researchers, educators, and policymakers committed to reducing bias-based violence and promoting active bystandership.

About the author
Sophie Litvak recently completed her doctoral research in criminology at the University of
Helsinki. Her work focuses on hate crime victimisation, religion, and bystander responses to
bias-based violence.
Contact information: Sophie.litvak7@gmail.com